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Tuskegee Syphilis Study

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tuskegee experiments" redirects here. For the album by Don Byron, see <a href="Tuskegee_Experiments_(album)" title="Tuskegee Experiments (album)">Tuskegee Experiments (album)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Tuskegee Syphilis Study</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">A doctor draws blood from one of the Tuskegee test subjects</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates</th><td class="infobox-data">1932–1972</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Locations</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Tuskegee%2C_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Funding</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">U.S. Public Health Service</a> (PHS)</td></tr></tbody></table>

The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> (informally referred to as the Tuskegee Experiment or Tuskegee Syphilis Study) was a study conducted between 1932 and 1972 by the <a href="United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">United States Public Health Service</a> (PHS) and the <a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) on a group of nearly 400 <a href="African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a> men with <a href="Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> as well as a <a href="Control_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Control group">control group</a> without.<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC-2020-3">[3]</a> The purpose of the study was to observe the effects of the disease when untreated, to the point of death and <a href="Autopsy" title="Autopsy">autopsy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a> Although there had been effective treatments to reduce the severity of the disease since the 1920s, the use of <a href="Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> for the treatment of syphilis was widespread as of 1945.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a> The men were not informed of the nature of the study, proper treatment was withheld, and more than 100 died as a result.

The Public Health Service started the study in 1932 in collaboration with <a href="Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a> (then the Tuskegee Institute), a <a href="Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically Black college</a> in Alabama. In the study, investigators enrolled 600 impoverished African-American <a href="Sharecropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecropper">sharecroppers</a> from <a href="Macon_County%2C_Alabama" title="Macon County, Alabama">Macon County, Alabama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> Of these men, 399 had <a href="Latent_syphilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent syphilis">latent syphilis</a>, with a <a href="Control_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Control group">control group</a> of 201 men who were not infected.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2020-3">[3]</a> As an incentive for participation in the study, the men were promised free medical care and promised funeral expenses.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a> While the men were provided with both medical and mental care that they otherwise would not have received,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> they were deceived by the PHS, who never informed them of their syphilis diagnosis<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and who provided disguised <a href="Placebo" title="Placebo">placebos</a>, ineffective treatments, and <a href="Diagnostic_procedures" class="mw-redirect" title="Diagnostic procedures">diagnostic procedures</a>, such as <a href="Lumbar_puncture" title="Lumbar puncture">lumbar punctures</a>, as treatment for "bad blood".<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gray-1998-12">[12]</a>

The men were initially told that the experiment was only going to last six months, but it was extended to 40 years.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2020-3">[3]</a> After funding for treatment was lost, the study was continued without informing the men that they would never be treated. None of the infected men were treated with penicillin despite the fact that, by 1947, the antibiotic was widely available and had become the standard treatment for syphilis.<a href="#cite_note-Duff-Brown-2017-13">[13]</a>

The study continued, under numerous Public Health Service supervisors, until 1972, when a leak to the press resulted in its termination on November 16 of that year.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> By then, 28 patients had died directly from syphilis, 100 died from complications related to syphilis, 40 of the patients' wives were infected with syphilis, and 19 children were born with <a href="Congenital_syphilis" title="Congenital syphilis">congenital syphilis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kim-2018-15">[15]</a>

The 40-year Tuskegee Study was a major violation of <a href="Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">ethical standards</a><a href="#cite_note-Duff-Brown-2017-13">[13]</a> and has been cited as "arguably the most infamous biomedical research study in U.S. history."<a href="#cite_note-Katz-2008-16">[16]</a> Its revelation led to the 1979 <a href="Belmont_Report" title="Belmont Report">Belmont Report</a> and to the establishment of the <a href="Office_for_Human_Research_Protections" title="Office for Human Research Protections">Office for Human Research Protections</a> (OHRP)<a href="#cite_note-HHS-2008-17">[17]</a> and <a href="Human_subject_research_legislation_in_the_United_States" title="Human subject research legislation in the United States">federal laws and regulations</a> requiring <a href="Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">institutional review boards</a> for the protection of <a href="Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">human subjects</a> in studies. The OHRP manages this responsibility within the <a href="United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">United States Department of Health and Human Services</a> (HHS).<a href="#cite_note-HHS-2008-17">[17]</a> Its revelation has also been an important cause of distrust in medical science and the US government amongst African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-Katz-2008-16">[16]</a>

In 1997, President <a href="Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> formally apologized on behalf of the United States to victims of the study, calling it shameful and racist.<a href="#cite_note-CNN-1997-18">[18]</a> "What was done cannot be undone, but we can end the silence," he said. "We can stop turning our heads away. We can look at you in the eye, and finally say, on behalf of the American people, what the United States government did was shameful, and I am sorry."<a href="#cite_note-CNN-1997-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_details">Study details</h3></div>

In 1928, the "<a href="The_Oslo_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="The Oslo Study">Oslo Study of Untreated Syphilis</a>" had reported on the <a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">pathologic</a> manifestations of untreated syphilis in several hundred white males. This study was a <a href="Retrospective_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrospective study">retrospective study</a> since investigators pieced together information from the histories of patients who had already contracted syphilis but remained untreated for some time.<a href="#cite_note-Whorley-2006-20">[20]</a>

The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee group decided to build on the Oslo work and perform a <a href="Prospective_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Prospective study">prospective study</a> to complement it.<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a> The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee began as a 6-month <a href="Descriptive_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive study">descriptive</a> <a href="Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiological</a> study of the range of pathology associated with syphilis in the population of Macon County. The researchers involved with the study reasoned that they were not harming the men involved in the study, under the presumption that they were unlikely to ever receive treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> At that time, it was believed that the effects of syphilis depended on the race of those affected. Physicians believed that syphilis had a more pronounced effect on African-Americans' <a href="Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">cardiovascular systems</a> than on their <a href="Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HHS-2008-17">[17]</a>

Investigators enrolled in the study a total of 600 impoverished, African-American <a href="Sharecropper" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharecropper">sharecroppers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> Of these men, 399 had latent syphilis, with a control group of 201 men who were not infected.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2020-3">[3]</a> As an incentive for participation in the study, the men were promised free medical care, but were deceived by the PHS, who never informed subjects of their diagnosis, despite the risk of infecting others, and the fact that the disease could lead to blindness, deafness, mental illness, heart disease, bone deterioration, the collapse of the central nervous system, and death.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-2017-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Associated_Press-2017-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heller-1972-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-AP_News-2017-10">[10]</a> Instead, the men were told that they were being treated for "bad blood", a <a href="Colloquialism" title="Colloquialism">colloquialism</a> that described various conditions such as syphilis, <a href="Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a>, and fatigue. The collection of illnesses the term included was a leading cause of death within the southern African-American community.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2020-3">[3]</a>

At the study's commencement, major medical textbooks had recommended that all syphilis be treated, as the consequences were quite severe. At that time, treatment included <a href="Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>-based compounds such as <a href="Arsphenamine" title="Arsphenamine">arsphenamine</a> (branded as the "606" formula).<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a> Initially, subjects were studied for six to eight months and then treated with contemporary methods, including <a href="Arsphenamine" title="Arsphenamine">Salvarsan</a> ("606"), <a href="Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercurial</a> ointments, and <a href="Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, which were mildly effective and highly toxic.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> Additionally, men in the study were administered disguised placebos, ineffective methods, and diagnostic procedures, which were misrepresented as treatments.<a href="#cite_note-Gray-1998-12">[12]</a>

Throughout, participants remained ignorant of the study clinicians' true purpose, which was to observe the natural course of untreated syphilis.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> Study clinicians could have chosen to treat all syphilitic subjects and close the study, or split off a <a href="Control_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Control group">control group</a> for testing with penicillin. Instead, they continued the study without treating any participants; they withheld treatment and information about penicillin from the subjects. In addition, scientists prevented participants from accessing syphilis treatment programs available to other residents in the area.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The researchers reasoned that the knowledge gained would benefit humankind; however, it was determined afterward that the doctors did harm their subjects by depriving them of appropriate treatment once it had been discovered. The study was characterized as "the longest non-therapeutic experiment on human beings in medical history."<a href="#cite_note-Jones-1981-22">[22]</a>

To ensure that the men would show up for the possibly dangerous, painful, diagnostic, and non-therapeutic <a href="Lumbar_puncture" title="Lumbar puncture">spinal taps</a>, doctors sent participants a misleading letter titled "Last Chance for Special Free Treatment".<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a>

The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee published its first clinical data in 1934 and issued its first major report in 1936. This was before the discovery of penicillin as a safe and effective treatment for syphilis. The study was not secret, since reports and data sets were published to the medical community throughout its duration.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a>

During <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, 256 of the infected subjects <a href="Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">registered for the draft</a> and were consequently diagnosed as having syphilis at military induction centers and ordered to obtain treatment for syphilis before they could be taken into the armed services.<a href="#cite_note-CPH-2004-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2012-24">[24]</a> PHS researchers prevented these men from getting treatment, thus depriving them of chances for a cure. Vonderlehr argued, "this study is of great importance from a scientific standpoint. It represents one of the last opportunities which the science of medicine will have to conduct an investigation of this kind. ... [Study] Doctor [Murray] Smith ... asked that these men be excluded from the list of draftees needing treatment. ... in order to make it possible to continue this study on an effective basis."<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2012-24">[24]</a>

Later, Smith, a local PHS representative involved in the study, wrote to Vonderlehr to ask what should be done with patients who had tested negative for syphilis at the time of enrollment in the study and were being used as control subjects but had later tested positive when registering for the draft: "So far, we are keeping the known positive patients from getting treatment. Is a control case of any value to the study, if he has contracted syphilis? Shall we withhold treatment from the control case who has developed syphilis?"<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2012-24">[24]</a> Vonderlehr replied that such cases "have lost their value to the study. There is no reason why these patients should not be given appropriate treatment unless you hear from Doctor Austin V. Deibert who is in direct charge of the study".<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2012-24">[24]</a>

By 1947, penicillin had become standard therapy for syphilis. The U.S. government sponsored several <a href="Public_health_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health program">public health programs</a> to form "rapid treatment centers" to eradicate the disease. When campaigns to eradicate <a href="Venereal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Venereal disease">venereal disease</a> came to Macon County, study researchers prevented their subjects from participating.<a href="#cite_note-CPH-2004-23">[23]</a> Although some of the men in the study received arsenical or penicillin treatments elsewhere, for most of them this did not amount to "adequate therapy".<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> By the end of the study in 1972, only 74 of the test subjects were still alive.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News-2017-10">[10]</a> Of the original 399 men, 28 had died of syphilis, 100 died of related complications, 40 of their wives had been infected, and 19 of their children were born with congenital syphilis.<a href="#cite_note-Kim-2018-15">[15]</a>

The revelation in 1972 of study failures by 29-year-old <a href="Whistleblower" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistleblower">whistleblower</a> <a href="Peter_Buxtun" title="Peter Buxtun">Peter Buxtun</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a> led to major changes in U.S. law and regulation concerning the protection of participants in clinical studies. Studies since then require <a href="Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>,<a href="#cite_note-HHS-2009-26">[26]</a> communication of <a href="Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosis</a> and accurate reporting of test results.<a href="#cite_note-UVA-1996a-27">[27]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_clinicians">Study clinicians</h3></div>

The <a href="Venereal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Venereal disease">venereal disease</a> section of the <a href="U.S._Public_Health_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Public Health Service">U.S. Public Health Service</a> (PHS) formed a study group in 1932 at its national headquarters in Washington, D.C. Taliaferro Clark, head of the USPHS, is credited with founding it. His initial goal was to follow untreated syphilis in a group of African-American men for six months to one year, and then follow up with a treatment phase.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones-1981-22">[22]</a> When the <a href="Rosenwald_Fund" title="Rosenwald Fund">Rosenwald Fund</a> withdrew its financial support, a treatment program was deemed too expensive.<a href="#cite_note-Whorley-2006-20">[20]</a> Clark, however, decided to continue the study, interested in determining whether syphilis had a different effect on African-Americans than it did on whites. A retrospective study of untreated syphilis in white males had been conducted in Oslo, Norway, and could provide the basis for comparison.<a href="#cite_note-Whorley-2006-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The prevailing belief at the time was white people were more likely to develop neurosyphilis and that Black people were more likely to sustain cardiovascular damage. Clark resigned before the study was extended beyond its original length.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>

Although Clark is usually assigned blame for conceiving the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee, <a href="Thomas_Parran_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Parran Jr.">Thomas Parran Jr.</a> also helped develop a non-treatment study in Macon County, Alabama. As the Health Commissioner of New York State (and former head of the PHS Venereal Disease Division), Parran was asked by the Rosenwald Fund to assess their <a href="Serological" class="mw-redirect" title="Serological">serological</a> survey of syphilis and demonstration projects in five Southern states.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Among his conclusions was the recommendation that: "If one wished to study the natural history of syphilis in the African American race uninfluenced by treatment, this county (Macon) would be an ideal location for such a study."<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>

Oliver C. Wenger was the director of the regional PHS Venereal Disease Clinic in <a href="Hot_Springs%2C_Arkansas" title="Hot Springs, Arkansas">Hot Springs, Arkansas</a>. He and his staff took the lead in developing study procedures. Wenger continued to advise and assist the study when it was adapted as a long-term, no-treatment observational study after funding for treatment was lost.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

<a href="Raymond_A._Vonderlehr" title="Raymond A. Vonderlehr">Raymond A. Vonderlehr</a> was appointed on-site director of the research program and developed the policies that shaped the long-term follow-up section of the project. His method of gaining the "<a href="Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">consent</a>" of the subjects for <a href="Lumbar_puncture" title="Lumbar puncture">spinal taps</a> (to look for signs of <a href="Neurosyphilis" title="Neurosyphilis">neurosyphilis</a>) was by advertising this diagnostic test as a "special free treatment".<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> He also met with local black doctors and asked them to deny treatment to participants in the Tuskegee Study. Vonderlehr retired as head of the venereal disease section in 1943, shortly after <a href="Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> was proven to cure syphilis.<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a> After Vonderlehr's retirement, <a href="John_R._Heller_Jr." title="John R. Heller Jr.">John R. Heller Jr.</a>, his mentee, succeeded him as head of the venereal disease section. Even with the discovery that penicillin served as an effective treatment for syphilis, Heller did not provide the drug to the participants of the study.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

Several African-American <a href="Health_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Health workers">health workers</a> and <a href="Health_educators" class="mw-redirect" title="Health educators">educators</a> associated with the <a href="Tuskegee_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Institute">Tuskegee Institute</a> played a critical role in the study's progress. The extent to which they knew about the full scope of the study is not clear in all cases.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> <a href="Robert_Russa_Moton" title="Robert Russa Moton">Robert Russa Moton</a>, then president of Tuskegee Institute, and <a href="Eugene_Dibble" title="Eugene Dibble">Eugene Dibble</a>, head of the Institute's <a href="John_A._Andrew_Memorial_Hospital" title="John A. Andrew Memorial Hospital">John A. Andrew Memorial Hospital</a>, both lent their endorsement and institutional resources to the government study.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

Nurse <a href="Eunice_Rivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunice Rivers">Eunice Rivers</a>, who had trained at Tuskegee Institute and worked at its hospital, was recruited at the start of the study to be the main point of contact with the participants.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> Rivers played a crucial role in the study because she served as the direct link to the regional African-American community. Vonderlehr considered her participation to be the key to gaining the trust of the subjects and promoting their participation.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas-2000-35">[35]</a> As a part of "Miss Rivers' Lodge", participants would receive free physical examinations at <a href="Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a>, free rides to and from the clinic, hot meals on examination days, and free treatment for minor ailments. Rivers was also key in convincing families to sign autopsy agreements in return for funeral benefits. As the study became long-term, Rivers became the chief person who provided continuity to the participants. She was the only study staff person to work with participants for the full 40 years.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Raymond_A._Vonderlehr" title="Raymond A. Vonderlehr">Raymond A. Vonderlehr</a> (medical doctor)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Eugene_Dibble" title="Eugene Dibble">Eugene Dibble</a> (medical doctor)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext"><a href="Eunice_Rivers_Laurie" title="Eunice Rivers Laurie">Eunice Rivers</a> (nurse)</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Oliver Wenger</div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Study_termination">Study termination</h2></div>

Several men employed by the PHS, namely Austin V. Deibert and Albert P. Iskrant, expressed criticism of the study, primarily on the grounds of poor scientific practice.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> The first dissenter against the study who was not involved in the PHS was <a href="Count_Gibson" title="Count Gibson">Count Gibson</a>, an associate professor at the <a href="Medical_College_of_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical College of Virginia">Medical College of Virginia in Richmond.</a> He expressed his ethical concerns to PHS's Sidney Olansky in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a>

Another dissenter was Irwin Schatz, a young <a href="Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> doctor only four years out of medical school. In 1965, Schatz read an article about the study in a <a href="Medical_journal" title="Medical journal">medical journal</a> and wrote a letter directly to the study's authors confronting them with a declaration of brazen unethical practice.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> His letter, read by Anne R. Yobs, one of the study's authors, was immediately ignored and filed away with a brief memo that no reply would be sent.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a>

In 1966, <a href="Peter_Buxtun" title="Peter Buxtun">Peter Buxtun</a>, a PHS venereal-disease investigator in <a href="San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, sent a letter to the national director of the Division of Venereal Diseases expressing his concerns about the ethics and morality of the extended U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The CDC, which by then controlled the study, reaffirmed the need to continue the study until completion; i.e. until all subjects had died and been autopsied. To bolster its position, the CDC received unequivocal support for the continuation of the study, both from local chapters of the <a href="National_Medical_Association" title="National Medical Association">National Medical Association</a> (representing African-American physicians) and the <a href="American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> (AMA).<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a>

In 1968, <a href="William_Carter_Jenkins" class="mw-redirect" title="William Carter Jenkins">William Carter Jenkins</a>, an African-American <a href="Statistician" title="Statistician">statistician</a> in the <a href="U.S._Public_Health_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Public Health Service">PHS</a> and part of the <a href="Department_of_Health%2C_Education%2C_and_Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Health, Education, and Welfare">Department of Health, Education, and Welfare</a> (HEW), founded and edited The Drum, a newsletter devoted to ending <a href="Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a> in HEW. In The Drum, Jenkins called for an end to the study.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> He did not succeed; it is not clear who read his work.

Buxtun finally went to the press in the early 1970s. The story broke first in the <a href="Washington_Star" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Star">Washington Star</a> on July 25, 1972, reported by <a href="Jean_Heller" title="Jean Heller">Jean Heller</a> of the <a href="Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Heller-1972-9">[9]</a> It became front-page news in the <a href="New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a> the following day. Senator <a href="Ted_Kennedy" title="Ted Kennedy">Edward Kennedy</a> called <a href="Congressional_hearings" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional hearings">Congressional hearings</a>, at which Buxtun and HEW officials testified. As a result of public outcry, the CDC and PHS appointed an ad hoc advisory panel to review the study.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-2017-7">[7]</a> The panel found that the men agreed to certain terms of the experiment, such as examination and treatment. However, they were not informed of the study's actual purpose.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2020-3">[3]</a> The panel then determined that the study was medically unjustified and ordered its termination.

In 1974, as part of the settlement of a <a href="Class_action" title="Class action">class action lawsuit</a> filed by the <a href="NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> on behalf of study participants and their descendants, the U.S. government paid the plaintiffs $10 million ($63.8 million in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">

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</style>2024) and agreed to provide free medical treatment to surviving participants and surviving family members infected as a consequence of the study. Congress created a commission empowered to write regulations to deter such abuses from occurring in the future.<a href="#cite_note-CDC-2020-3">[3]</a>

A collection of materials compiled to investigate the study is held at the <a href="National_Library_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library of Medicine">National Library of Medicine</a> in <a href="Bethesda%2C_Maryland" title="Bethesda, Maryland">Bethesda, Maryland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2></div>

In 1974, Congress passed the <a href="National_Research_Act" title="National Research Act">National Research Act</a> and created a <a href="National_Commission_for_the_Protection_of_Human_Subjects_of_Biomedical_and_Behavioral_Research" title="National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research">commission</a> to study and write regulations governing studies involving human participants. Within the <a href="United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">United States Department of Health and Human Services</a>, the <a href="Office_for_Human_Research_Protections" title="Office for Human Research Protections">Office for Human Research Protections</a> (OHRP) was established to oversee <a href="Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a>. As a result, new studies require <a href="Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>,<a href="#cite_note-HHS-2009-26">[26]</a> communication of diagnosis and accurate reporting of test results.<a href="#cite_note-UVA-1996a-27">[27]</a> Institutional review boards (IRBs), including laypeople, are established in scientific research groups and hospitals to review study protocols, protect patient interests, and ensure that participants are fully informed.

In 1994, a multi-disciplinary symposium was held on the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee, Doing Bad in the Name of Good?: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and Its Legacy at the <a href="University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a>. Following that, interested parties formed the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee to develop ideas that had arisen at the symposium, chaired by <a href="Vanessa_Northington_Gamble" title="Vanessa Northington Gamble">Vanessa Northington Gamble</a>. It issued its final report in May 1996, having been established at a meeting on January 18–19 of that year.<a href="#cite_note-UVA-1996b-40">[40]</a> The Committee had two related goals:<a href="#cite_note-UVA-1996b-40">[40]</a>

<ol><li>President <a href="Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> should publicly apologize to the survivors and their community for past government wrongdoing related to the study due to the harm done to the Macon County community and Tuskegee University, and the fears of government and medical abuse the study created among African Americans. No apology had yet been issued at the time.<a href="#cite_note-UVA-1996b-40">[40]</a></li>

<li>The Committee and relevant federal agencies should develop a strategy to redress the damages, specifically recommending the creation of a center at Tuskegee University for public education about the study, "training programs for <a href="Health_professional" title="Health professional">health care providers</a>", and a center for the study of <a href="Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">ethics in scientific research</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UVA-1996b-40">[40]</a></li></ol>

A year later on May 16, 1997, Bill Clinton formally apologized and held a ceremony at the <a href="White_House" title="White House">White House</a> for surviving Tuskegee study participants. He said:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">What was done cannot be undone. But we can end the silence. We can stop turning our heads away. We can look at you in the eye and finally say on behalf of the American people, what the United States government did was shameful, and I am sorry... To our African American citizens, I am sorry that your federal government orchestrated a study so clearly racist.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></blockquote>

Five of the eight study survivors attended the White House ceremony.<a href="#cite_note-Banisky-1997-42">[42]</a>

The presidential apology led to progress in addressing the second goal of the Legacy Committee. The federal government contributed to establishing the National Center for Bioethics in Research and Health Care at Tuskegee, which officially opened in 1999 to explore issues that underlie research and medical care of African Americans and other under-served people.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

In 2009, the Legacy Museum opened in the Bioethics Center, to honor the hundreds of participants of the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the African American Male.<a href="#cite_note-UVA-1996b-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

In June 2022, the <a href="Milbank_Memorial_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="Milbank Memorial Fund">Milbank Memorial Fund</a> apologized to descendants of the study's victims for its the role in the study.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Study_participants">Study participants</h3></div>

The five survivors who attended the White House ceremony in 1997 were Charlie Pollard, Herman Shaw, Carter Howard, Fred Simmons, and Frederick Moss. The remaining three survivors had family members attend the ceremony in their name. Sam Doner was represented by his daughter, Gwendolyn Cox; Ernest Hendon by his brother, North Hendon; and George Key by his grandson, Christopher Monroe.<a href="#cite_note-Banisky-1997-42">[42]</a> The last man who was a participant in the study died in 2004.

Charlie Pollard appealed to civil rights attorney <a href="Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred D. Gray</a>, who also attended the White House ceremony, for help when he learned the true nature of the study he had been participating in for years. In 1973, Pollard v. United States resulted in a $10 million settlement.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a>

Another participant of the study was Freddie Lee Tyson, a sharecropper who helped build <a href="Moton_Field" class="mw-redirect" title="Moton Field">Moton Field</a>, where the legendary "<a href="Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a>" learned to fly during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-Associated_Press-2017-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_failings">Scientific failings</h3></div>

Aside from a study of racial differences, one of the main goals that researchers in the study wanted to accomplish was to determine the extent to which treatment for syphilis was necessary and at what point in the progression of the disease it should be treated. For this reason, the study emphasized observation of individuals with late latent syphilis.<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> However, despite clinicians' attempts to justify the study as necessary for science, the study itself was not conducted in a scientifically viable way. Because participants were treated with mercury rubs, injections of neoarsphenamine, protiodide, <a href="Arsphenamine" title="Arsphenamine">Salvarsan</a>, and bismuth, the study did not follow subjects whose syphilis was untreated, however minimally effective these treatments may have been.<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a>

Austin V. Deibert of the PHS recognized that since the study's main goal had been compromised in this way, the results would be meaningless and impossible to manipulate statistically. Even the toxic treatments that were available before the availability of penicillin, according to Deibert, could "greatly lower, if not prevent, late syphilitic cardiovascular disease ... [while] increas[ing] the incidence of neuro-recurrence and other forms of relapse."<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> Despite their effectiveness, these treatments were never prescribed to the participants.<a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racism">Racism</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Medical_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Medical racism in the United States">Medical racism in the United States</a></div>

The conception which lay behind the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee in 1932, in which 100% of its participants were poor, rural African-American men with very limited access to health information, reflects the <a href="Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racial attitudes in the U.S. at that time</a>. The clinicians who led the study assumed that African-Americans were particularly susceptible to <a href="Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">venereal diseases</a> because of their race, and they assumed that the study's participants were not interested in receiving medical treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Howell-2017-46">[46]</a>

Taliaferro Clark said, "The rather low intelligence of the Negro population, depressed economic conditions, and the common promiscuous sex relations not only contribute to the spread of syphilis but the prevailing indifference with regards to treatment."<a href="#cite_note-Howell-2017-46">[46]</a> In reality, the promise of medical treatment, usually reserved only for emergencies among the rural black population of Macon County, Alabama, was what secured subjects' cooperation in the study.<a href="#cite_note-Brandt-1978-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_trust">Public trust</h3></div>

The revelations of mistreatment under the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee are believed to have significantly damaged the trust of the black community toward public health efforts in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Alsan-2018-48">[48]</a> Observers believe that the abuses of the study may have contributed to the reluctance of many poor black people to seek routine <a href="Preventive_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive care">preventive care</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Alsan-2018-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> A 1999 survey showed that 80% of African-American men wrongly believed the men in the study had been injected with syphilis.<a href="#cite_note-Katz-2008-16">[16]</a>

While the final report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee noted that the study had contributed to fears among the African American community of abuse and exploitation by government officials and medical professionals,<a href="#cite_note-UVA-1996b-40">[40]</a> medical mistreatment of African Americans and resulting mistrust predates the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.<a href="#cite_note-Gamble-1997-50">[50]</a> <a href="Vanessa_Northington_Gamble" title="Vanessa Northington Gamble">Vanessa Northington Gamble</a>, who had chaired the committee, addressed this in a seminal article published in 1997<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> after President Clinton's apology. She argued that while the Tuskegee Syphilis Study contributed to African Americans' continuing mistrust of the biomedical community, the study was not the most important reason. She called attention to a broader historical and social context that had already negatively influenced community attitudes, including countless prior medical injustices before the study's start in 1932. These dated back to the <a href="Antebellum_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Antebellum period">antebellum period</a>, when slaves had been used for <a href="Unethical_human_experimentation" title="Unethical human experimentation">unethical and harmful experiments</a> including tests of endurance against and remedies for <a href="Heatstroke" class="mw-redirect" title="Heatstroke">heatstroke</a> and experimental <a href="Gynecological_surgery" title="Gynecological surgery">gynecological surgeries</a> without <a href="Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a>. African Americans' <a href="Body_snatching" title="Body snatching">graves were robbed</a> to provide cadavers for dissection, a practice that continued, along with other abuses, after the <a href="American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gamble-1997-50">[50]</a>

A 2016 paper by <a href="Marcella_Alsan" title="Marcella Alsan">Marcella Alsan</a> and Marianne Wanamaker found "that the historical disclosure of the [Tuskegee experiment] in 1972 is correlated with increases in medical mistrust and mortality and decreases in both outpatient and inpatient physician interactions for older black men. Our estimates imply life expectancy at age 45 for black men fell by up to 1.4 years in response to the disclosure, accounting for approximately 35% of the 1980 life expectancy gap between black and white men." The authors further observed that the decline also represented 25% of the gender gap in Black life expectancy at that time. The authors noted that the extent of this effect was comparable to major public health benchmarks, such as eliminating smoking or the impact of the <a href="Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> on life expectancy. Aslan's and Wanamaker's study provided evidence that reduced trust in medical institutions, fueled by the Tuskegee disclosure, had measurable effects on health attitudes and outcomes in the black community. Aslan and Wanamaker's study provides evidence that reduced trust in medical institutions was fueled by the Tuskegee disclosure, having measurable effects on health attitudes and outcomes on the Black community.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>

Studies that have investigated the willingness of black Americans to participate in medical studies have not drawn consistent conclusions related to the willingness and participation in studies by racial minorities.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The Tuskegee Legacy Project Questionnaire found that, even though black Americans are four times more likely to know about the syphilis trials than are whites, they are two to three times more willing to participate in biomedical studies.<a href="#cite_note-AJPH-2008-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reverby-2009-5">[5]</a> Some of the factors that continue to limit the credibility of these few studies is how awareness differs significantly across studies. For instance, it appears that the rates of awareness differ as a function of the method of assessment. Study participants who reported awareness of the Tuskegee syphilis study are often misinformed about the results and issues, and awareness of the study is not reliably associated with unwillingness to participate in scientific research.<a href="#cite_note-Katz-2008-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-AJPH-2008-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a>

Distrust of the government, in part formed through the study, contributed to persistent rumors during the 1980s in the black community that the government was responsible for the HIV/AIDS crisis by having deliberately introduced the virus to the black community as some kind of experiment.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In February 1992 on ABC's <a href="Prime_Time_Live" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Time Live">Prime Time Live</a>, journalist <a href="Jay_Schadler" title="Jay Schadler">Jay Schadler</a> interviewed Dr. Sidney Olansky, Public Health Services director of the study from 1950 to 1957. When asked about the lies that were told to the study subjects, Olansky said, "The fact that they were illiterate was helpful, too, because they couldn't read the newspapers. If they were not, as things moved on they might have been reading newspapers and seen what was going on."<a href="#cite_note-Thomas-2000-35">[35]</a>

On January 3, 2019, a United States federal judge stated that <a href="Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>, <a href="Bristol-Myers_Squibb" class="mw-redirect" title="Bristol-Myers Squibb">Bristol-Myers Squibb</a> and the <a href="Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> must face a $1 billion lawsuit for their roles in a <a href="Guatemala_syphilis_experiments" title="Guatemala syphilis experiments">similar experiment affecting Guatemalans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In 2001, a court compared the <a href="Kennedy_Krieger_Institute's_Lead-Based_Paint_Abatement_and_Repair_and_Maintenance_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy Krieger Institute's Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study">Kennedy Krieger Institute's Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study</a> to the Tuskegee experiments.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>

Some African Americans have been hesitant to get <a href="COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine">vaccinated against COVID-19</a> due to the Tuskegee experiments.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> In September 2021, the right-wing group <a href="America's_Frontline_Doctors" title="America's Frontline Doctors">America's Frontline Doctors</a>, which has promoted <a href="COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 conspiracy theories and misinformation</a>, filed a lawsuit against New York City, claiming that its <a href="Vaccine_passports_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Vaccine passports during the COVID-19 pandemic">vaccine passport</a> health orders were inherently discriminatory against African Americans due to the "historical context".<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethical_implications">Ethical implications</h2></div>

The U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee highlighted issues in race and science.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The aftershocks of this study, and other <a href="Human_experimentation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Human experimentation in the United States">human experiments in the United States</a>, led to the establishment of the <a href="National_Commission_for_the_Protection_of_Human_Subjects_of_Biomedical_and_Behavioral_Research" title="National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research">National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research</a> and the <a href="National_Research_Act" title="National Research Act">National Research Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HHS-2008-17">[17]</a> The latter requires the establishment of institutional review boards (IRBs) at institutions receiving federal support (such as grants, cooperative agreements, or contracts). Foreign consent procedures can be substituted which offer similar protections and must be submitted to the <a href="Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">Federal Register</a> unless a statute or Executive Order requires otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-HHS-2008-17">[17]</a>

In the period following World War II, the revelation of <a href="The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and related <a href="Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Nazi medical abuses</a> brought about changes in international law. Western allies formulated the <a href="Nuremberg_Code" title="Nuremberg Code">Nuremberg Code</a> to protect the rights of research subjects. In 1964, the <a href="World_Medical_Association" title="World Medical Association">World Medical Association</a>'s <a href="Declaration_of_Helsinki" title="Declaration of Helsinki">Declaration of Helsinki</a> specified that experiments involving human beings needed the "informed consent" of participants.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> In spite of these events, the protocols of the study were not re-evaluated according to the new standards, even though whether or not the study should continue was re-evaluated several times (including in 1969 by the CDC). U.S. government officials and medical professionals kept silent and the study did not end until 1972, nearly three decades after the Nuremberg trials.<a href="#cite_note-Gray-1998-12">[12]</a>

Writer James Jones said that the physicians were fixated on African-American sexuality. They believed that African-Americans willingly had sexual relations with infected persons (although no one had been told his diagnosis).<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Due to the lack of information, the participants were manipulated into continuing the study without full knowledge of their role or their choices.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Since the late 20th century, IRBs established in association with clinical studies requirements that all involved in the study be willing and voluntary participants.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>

The Tuskegee University Legacy Museum has on display a check issued by the United States government on behalf of Dan Carlis to Lloyd Clements, Jr., a descendant of one of the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee participants.<a href="#cite_note-Clements-2009-67">[67]</a> Lloyd Clements, Jr.'s great-grandfather Dan Carlis and two of his uncles, Ludie Clements and Sylvester Carlis, were in the study. Original legal paperwork for Sylvester Carlis related to the study is on display at the museum as well. Lloyd Clements, Jr. has worked with noted historian Susan Reverby concerning his family's involvement with the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee.<a href="#cite_note-Clements-2009-67">[67]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div>

<dl><dt>Comics</dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Truth%3A_Red%2C_White%2C_and_Black" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth: Red, White, and Black">Truth: Red, White, and Black</a> (published January–July 2003) is a seven-issue <a href="Marvel_Comics" title="Marvel Comics">Marvel</a> comic book series inspired by the Tuskegee trials. Written as a prequel to the <a href="Captain_America" title="Captain America">Captain America</a> series, Truth: Red, White, and Black explores the exploitation of certain races for scientific research, as in the Tuskegee syphilis trials.<a href="#cite_note-AJPH-2008-54">[54]</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Theater</dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="David_Feldshuh" title="David Feldshuh">David Feldshuh</a>'s stage play Miss Evers' Boys (1992), based on the history of the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee, was a runner-up for the 1992 <a href="Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a> in drama.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Music</dt></dl>

<ul><li>The lyrics of <a href="Gil_Scott-Heron" title="Gil Scott-Heron">Gil Scott-Heron</a>'s 33-second song, "Tuskeegee #626", featured on the <a href="Bridges_(Gil_Scott-Heron_and_Brian_Jackson_album)" title="Bridges (Gil Scott-Heron and Brian Jackson album)">Bridges</a> (1977) LP, details and condemns the U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee.</li>

<li><a href="Frank_Zappa" title="Frank Zappa">Frank Zappa</a>'s 1984 album <a href="Thing_Fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Thing Fish">Thing Fish</a> was heavily inspired by the events of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.</li>

<li>Avant-garde metal band <a href="Zeal_%26_Ardor" title="Zeal & Ardor">Zeal & Ardor</a>'s song "Tuskegee", from the 2020 EP Wake of a Nation, is about the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.</li>

<li>Jazz musician <a href="Don_Byron" title="Don Byron">Don Byron</a>'s 1992 album <a href="Tuskegee_Experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee Experiments">Tuskegee Experiments</a> was inspired by the study.</li>

<li><a href="Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>-based rapper <a href="JID" title="JID">JID</a> juxtaposes his life to the Tuskegee Experiment in his 2021 song "Skegee".<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Television</dt></dl>

<ul><li>The 1992 <a href="Secret_History_(TV_series)" title="Secret History (TV series)">Secret History</a> series documentary "Bad Blood" is about the experiment.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></li>

<li><a href="Miss_Evers'_Boys" title="Miss Evers' Boys">Miss Evers' Boys</a> (1997), a TV adaptation of David Feldshuh's eponymous 1992 stage play, was nominated for 11 <a href="Emmy_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmy Award">Emmy Awards</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> and won in four categories.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Video production</dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Medical_Racism%3A_The_New_Apartheid" title="Medical Racism: The New Apartheid">Medical Racism: The New Apartheid</a> (2021) exploits the Tuskegee trials to promote <a href="COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="John_Charles_Cutler" title="John Charles Cutler">John Charles Cutler</a></li>

<li><a href="Declaration_of_Geneva" title="Declaration of Geneva">Declaration of Geneva</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugenics_in_the_United_States" title="Eugenics in the United States">Eugenics in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Kennedy_Krieger_Institute's_Lead-Based_Paint_Abatement_and_Repair_and_Maintenance_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy Krieger Institute's Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study">Kennedy Krieger Institute's Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Repair and Maintenance Study</a></li>

<li><a href="Guatemala_syphilis_experiments" title="Guatemala syphilis experiments">Guatemala syphilis experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_experimentation_in_North_Korea" title="Human experimentation in North Korea">Human experimentation in North Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Conference_on_Harmonisation_of_Technical_Requirements_for_Registration_of_Pharmaceuticals_for_Human_Use" class="mw-redirect" title="International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use">International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use</a></li>

<li><a href="Bill_Jenkins_(epidemiologist)" title="Bill Jenkins (epidemiologist)">Bill Jenkins (epidemiologist)</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_Apartheid" title="Medical Apartheid">Medical Apartheid</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Whitecoat" title="Operation Whitecoat">Operation Whitecoat</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_4.1" title="Project 4.1">Project 4.1</a></li>

<li><a href="Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Shiloh_Missionary_Baptist_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiloh Missionary Baptist Church">Shiloh Missionary Baptist Church</a></li>

<li><a href="Unethical_human_experimentation" title="Unethical human experimentation">Unethical human experimentation</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Medical_Association" title="World Medical Association">World Medical Association</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFNewkirk2016" class="citation news cs1">Newkirk, Vann R. II (June 17, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/06/tuskegee-study-medical-distrust-research/487439/">"A Generation of Bad Blood"</a>. <a href="The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201218121728/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/06/tuskegee-study-medical-distrust-research/487439/">Archived</a> from the original on December 18, 2020. Retrieved December 18, 2020. <q>Known officially as the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male ...</q></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBakerBrawleyMarks2005" class="citation journal cs1">Baker, Shamim M.; Brawley, Otis W.; Marks, Leonard S. (June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usrf.org/uro-video/Tuskegee_2004/Tuskegee_study.pdf">"Effects of untreated syphilis in the negro male, 1932 to 1972: a closure comes to the Tuskegee study, 2004"</a> (PDF). Urology. 65 (6): 1259–62. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.urology.2004.10.023">10.1016/j.urology.2004.10.023</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15922414">15922414</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915180342/http://www.usrf.org/uro-video/Tuskegee_2004/Tuskegee_study.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on September 15, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2020. <q>The study was officially titled 'The Effects of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male.'</q></cite></li>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/ethics-articles/The_Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study_and_Its_Implications_for_the_21st_Century/">"The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and Its Implications for the 21st Century"</a>. socialworker.com.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCaldwellE._V._Price1973" class="citation journal cs1">Caldwell, J. G; E. V. Price; et al. (1973). "Aortic regurgitation in the Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis". J Chronic Dis. 26 (3): 187–94. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0021-9681%2873%2990089-1">10.1016/0021-9681(73)90089-1</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4695031">4695031</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHiltner1973" class="citation journal cs1">Hiltner, S. (1973). "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study under review". Christ Century. 90 (43): 1174–76. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11662609">11662609</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKampmeier1972" class="citation journal cs1">Kampmeier, R. H. (1972). "The Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis". South Med J. 65 (10): 1247–51. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00007611-197210000-00016">10.1097/00007611-197210000-00016</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5074095">5074095</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKampmeier1974" class="citation journal cs1">Kampmeier, R. H. (1974). "Final report on the "Tuskegee syphilis study". South Med J. 67 (11): 1349–53. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00007611-197411000-00019">10.1097/00007611-197411000-00019</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4610772">4610772</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOlanskyL._Simpson1954" class="citation journal cs1">Olansky, S.; L. Simpson; et al. (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2024316">"Environmental factors in the Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis"</a>. Public Health Rep. 69 (7): 691–98. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4588864">10.2307/4588864</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4588864">4588864</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2024316">2024316</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13177831">13177831</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRockwellA._R._Yobs1964" class="citation journal cs1">Rockwell, D. H.; A. R. Yobs; et al. (1964). "The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis; the 30th Year of Observation". Arch Intern Med. 114 (6): 792–98. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchinte.1964.03860120104011">10.1001/archinte.1964.03860120104011</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14211593">14211593</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchumanS._Olansky1955" class="citation journal cs1">Schuman, S. H.; S. Olansky; et al. (1955). "Untreated syphilis in the male African American; background and current status of patients in the Tuskegee study". J Chronic Dis. 2 (5): 543–58. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0021-9681%2855%2990153-3">10.1016/0021-9681(55)90153-3</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13263393">13263393</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<li class="gallerycaption">Photocopied documents from the study</li>

<div class="gallerytext">The Tuskegee Study Group Letter inviting subjects to receive "special treatment", actually a diagnostic lumbar puncture</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Document from Tuskegee Syphilis Study, requesting that after test subjects die, an autopsy be performed, and the results sent to the <a href="National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a></div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Draft report of study results up to 1949, page 1</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Draft report of study results up to 1949, page 2</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Table depicting number of subjects with syphilis and number of controlled non-syphilitic patients, and how many of the subjects have died during the experiments, 1969</div>

</li>

<div class="gallerytext">Memo ordering the termination of the study</div>

</li>

</ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCarlson2006" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Elof Axel (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timesoftriumphti00carl">Times of triumph, times of doubt : science and the battle for the public trust</a>. Cold Spring Harbor Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87969-805-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGjestland_T1955" class="citation journal cs1">Gjestland T (1955). "The Oslo study of untreated syphilis: an epidemiologic investigation of the natural course of the syphilitic infection based upon a re-study of the Boeck-Bruusgaard material". Acta Derm Venereol. 35 (Suppl 34): 3–368.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGray1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Gray, Fred D.</a> (1998). The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: The Real Story and Beyond. Montgomery, Alabama: NewSouth Books.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJones1981" class="citation book cs1">Jones, James H. (1981). Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. New York: Free Press.</cite></li>

<li>DiAnni, Denisce (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.lib.unc.edu/catalog/UNCb2482491">The Deadly Deception, PBS/WGBH Nova documentary video.</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReverby1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Susan_M._Reverby" class="mw-redirect" title="Susan M. Reverby">Reverby, Susan M.</a> (1998). "History of an Apology: From Tuskegee to the White House". Research Nurse.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReverby2000" class="citation book cs1">Reverby, Susan M. (2000). Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. University of North Carolina Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReverby2009" class="citation book cs1">Reverby, Susan M. (2009). Examining Tuskegee: The Infamous Syphilis Study and its Legacy. University of North Carolina Press.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li>Sherrod, K. Lynn. "Nurse Eunice Rivers in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study: In the Jim Crow south" (Thesis, Sarah Lawrence College; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, 2014. 1525437).</li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFThomasSandra_Crouse_Quinn1991" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, Stephen B; Sandra Crouse Quinn (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1405662">"The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932–1972: Implications for HIV Education and AIDS Risk Programs in the Black Community"</a>. American Journal of Public Health. 81 (1503): 1498–1505. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.81.11.1498">10.2105/AJPH.81.11.1498</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1405662">1405662</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1951814">1951814</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFWashington2007" class="citation book cs1">Washington, Harriet A. (2007). <a href="Medical_Apartheid" title="Medical Apartheid">Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans From Colonial Times to the Present</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tuskegee_syphilis_experiment" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Tuskegee syphilis experiment">Tuskegee syphilis experiment</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tuskegeestudy.weebly.com/">"Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study"</a>. Claude Moore Health Sciences Library, <a href="University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a>.</cite> (Archived.)</li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/southeast/finding-aids/tuskegee.html">"Patient medical files"</a>. National Archives and Records Administration Southeast Region. Morrow, GA. August 15, 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20001027222606/http://www.msu.edu/course/hm/546/tuskegee.htm">"Review of the TSS"</a>. Michigan State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msu.edu/course/hm/546/tuskegee.htm">the original</a> on October 27, 2000.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/">"U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee"</a>. <a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Centers for Disease Control">Centers for Disease Control</a>. October 3, 2018.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Medical_ethics_cases373" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">Medical ethics cases</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Assisted suicide</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Betty_and_George_Coumbias" title="Betty and George Coumbias">Betty and George Coumbias</a></li>

<li><a href="Dax_Cowart" title="Dax Cowart">Dax Cowart</a></li>

<li><a href="Giovanni_Nuvoli" title="Giovanni Nuvoli">Giovanni Nuvoli</a></li>

<li><a href="Sue_Rodriguez" title="Sue Rodriguez">Sue Rodriguez</a></li>

<li><a href="Ram%C3%B3n_Sampedro" title="Ramón Sampedro">Ramón Sampedro</a></li>

<li><a href="Piergiorgio_Welby" title="Piergiorgio Welby">Piergiorgio Welby</a></li>

<li><a href="Jack_Kevorkian" title="Jack Kevorkian">Jack Kevorkian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Euthanasia/ Withholding treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Andrew_Bedner" title="Andrew Bedner">Andrew Bedner</a></li>

<li><a href="Tony_Bland" title="Tony Bland">Tony Bland</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Brophy" title="Paul Brophy">Paul Brophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Carol_Carr" title="Carol Carr">Carol Carr</a></li>

<li><a href="Eluana_Englaro" title="Eluana Englaro">Eluana Englaro</a></li>

<li><a href="June_Hartley" title="June Hartley">June Hartley</a></li>

<li><a href="Vincent_Lambert" class="mw-redirect" title="Vincent Lambert">Vincent Lambert</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Latimer" title="Robert Latimer">Robert Latimer</a></li>

<li><a href="Haleigh_Poutre" title="Haleigh Poutre">Haleigh Poutre</a></li>

<li><a href="Karen_Ann_Quinlan" title="Karen Ann Quinlan">Karen Ann Quinlan</a></li>

<li><a href="Terri_Schiavo_case" title="Terri Schiavo case">Terri Schiavo</a></li>

<li><a href="Gloria_Taylor_(patient)" title="Gloria Taylor (patient)">Gloria Taylor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Medical opinion against parent/patient/guardian</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Betancourt_v._Trinitas_Hospital" title="Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital">Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital</a></li>

<li><a href="Commonwealth_v._Twitchell" title="Commonwealth v. Twitchell">Commonwealth v. Twitchell</a></li>

<li><a href="Lantz_v._Coleman" title="Lantz v. Coleman">Lantz v. Coleman</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfie_Evans_case" title="Alfie Evans case">Alfie Evans case</a></li>

<li><a href="Archie_Battersbee_case" title="Archie Battersbee case">Archie Battersbee case</a></li>

<li><a href="Alta_Fixsler" title="Alta Fixsler">Alta Fixsler</a></li>

<li><a href="Charlie_Gard_case" title="Charlie Gard case">Charlie Gard case</a></li>

<li><a href="Tirhas_Habtegiris" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirhas Habtegiris">Tirhas Habtegiris</a></li>

<li><a href="Rom_Houben" title="Rom Houben">Rom Houben</a></li>

<li><a href="Sun_Hudson_case" title="Sun Hudson case">Sun Hudson case</a></li>

<li><a href="Ashya_King_case" title="Ashya King case">Ashya King case</a></li>

<li><a href="Jesse_Koochin" title="Jesse Koochin">Jesse Koochin</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Maraachli_case" title="Joseph Maraachli case">Joseph Maraachli case</a></li>

<li><a href="Jahi_McMath_case" title="Jahi McMath case">Jahi McMath case</a></li>

<li><a href="Sarah_Murnaghan_lung_transplant_controversy" title="Sarah Murnaghan lung transplant controversy">Sarah Murnaghan</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiro_Nikolouzos_case" title="Spiro Nikolouzos case">Spiro Nikolouzos case</a></li>

<li><a href="Aruna_Shanbaug_case" title="Aruna Shanbaug case">Aruna Shanbaug case</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Vetter" title="David Vetter">David Vetter</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a> to treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ashley_Treatment" title="Ashley Treatment">Ashley Treatment</a></li>

<li><a href="Gillick_competence" title="Gillick competence">Gillick competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Marion's_Case" class="mw-redirect" title="Marion's Case">Marion's Case</a></li>

<li><a href="Schloendorff_v._Society_of_New_York_Hospital" title="Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital">Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital</a></li>

<li><a href="Christiane_V%C3%B6lling" title="Christiane Völling">Christiane Völling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abdullahi_v._Pfizer%2C_Inc." title="Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.">Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Stevens" title="Albert Stevens">Albert Stevens</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Kligman" title="Albert Kligman">Albert Kligman's dermatology experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Reimer" title="David Reimer">David Reimer</a></li>

<li><a href="Deep_sleep_therapy" title="Deep sleep therapy">Deep sleep therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctors'_Trial" title="Doctors' Trial">Doctors' Trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Guatemala_syphilis_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Guatemala syphilis experiment">Guatemala syphilis experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Henrietta_Lacks" title="Henrietta Lacks">Henrietta Lacks</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_radiation_experiments" title="Human radiation experiments">Human radiation experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="J._Marion_Sims" title="J. Marion Sims">J. Marion Sims</a></li>

<li><a href="Jesse_Gelsinger" title="Jesse Gelsinger">Jesse Gelsinger</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Gilbert_Hamilton" title="Joseph Gilbert Hamilton">Joseph Gilbert Hamilton</a></li>

<li><a href="Moore_v._Regents_of_the_University_of_California" title="Moore v. Regents of the University of California">Moore v. Regents of the University of California</a></li>

<li><a href="Madhouse%3A_A_Tragic_Tale_of_Megalomania_and_Modern_Medicine" title="Madhouse: A Tragic Tale of Megalomania and Modern Medicine">Surgery to try to improve mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_Apartheid" title="Medical Apartheid">Medical Experimentation on Black Americans</a></li>

<li><a href="Milgram_experiment" title="Milgram experiment">Milgram experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Monster_Study" title="Monster Study">Monster Study</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Radioactive iodine experiments</a></li>

<li><a href="Skid_Row_Cancer_Study" title="Skid Row Cancer Study">Skid Row Cancer Study</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanford_prison_experiment" title="Stanford prison experiment">Stanford prison experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Study_329" title="Study 329">Study 329</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Plutonium_Files" title="The Plutonium Files">Plutonium injections</a></li>

<li><a href="Willowbrook_State_School" title="Willowbrook State School">Willowbrook State School</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenberg_v._Miami_Children's_Hospital_Research_Institute" title="Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute">Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tuskegee_University274" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><div id="Tuskegee_University274" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><div>Located in: <a href="Tuskegee%2C_Alabama" title="Tuskegee, Alabama">Tuskegee, Alabama</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Agriculture, Environment and Nutrition Sciences</li>

<li>Arts and Sciences</li>

<li>Business and Information Science</li>

<li>Engineering</li>

<li>Veterinary Medicine, Nursing and Allied Health</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Athletics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tuskegee_Golden_Tigers" title="Tuskegee Golden Tigers">Tuskegee Golden Tigers</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuskegee_Golden_Tigers_football" title="Tuskegee Golden Tigers football">Football</a></li>

<li><a href="Abbott_Memorial_Alumni_Stadium" title="Abbott Memorial Alumni Stadium">Abbott Memorial Alumni Stadium</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Center_Arena" title="James Center Arena">James Center Arena</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">Campus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="The_George_Washington_Carver_Museum" title="The George Washington Carver Museum">The George Washington Carver Museum</a></li>

<li>Alabama Cooperative Extension System (History)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li>

<li><a href="Lewis_Adams" title="Lewis Adams">Lewis Adams</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuskegee_Institute_Silver_Anniversary_Lecture" title="Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture">Tuskegee Institute Silver Anniversary Lecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Tuskegee_University_shooting" title="Tuskegee University shooting">Tuskegee University shooting</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#7B0707;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #F2BD2C, inset -2px -2px 0 #F2BD2C;"><div>

<ul><li>Founded: 1881</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1420011#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata645" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1420011#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata645" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85138982">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007558424105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/0889f5af-fa67-466f-82b5-e5995411aa78">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-15" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study&oldid=1300578217">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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